29 November 2023

Capstone Research Project - Houses of Straw, Sticks, & Bricks...and the Big Bad Wolf (10 July 2022)

 

Iceland Coastline (photo by V.A. McMillan, October 2023)


Houses of Straw, Sticks, and Bricks – Increasing Disaster Resiliency to Wildfires, Floods, Earthquakes, Wind Events, and the Big Bad Wolf 

 

V. Andrew McMillan

Justice Institute of British Columbia

ESMS-4900 Capstone

Instructor: Beth Larcombe

Advisor: Bettina Williams

Due Date: 10 July 2022

The submission confirmation number is 6eb0bc84-f685-440e-934e-2c698eee4225. 

Grade:

Comments:

Abstract

 Ongoing disaster level events impact the built world and citizens, alike, in a trend that does not appear to be abating any time soon. However, if the structures of the build world were resilient to the forces of wildfires, floods, earthquakes, and wind events (known in this research as the quadruple threat), by being designed and built with that purpose, then, citizens and communities could weather the extremes with confidence. This research explores what is currently known and recommended to enhance structural disaster resiliency of dwellings. These recommendations are captured and communicated using an infographic (Figure 4). Furthermore, a directory of research facilities (Appendix) is included to aid future research. Utilizing a systems approach, the findings support the interconnectedness of the dwelling components: (a) roofing system, (b) wall and floor systems, (c) window and door system, (d) the foundation system, and (e) utilities system; and how they must be designed to work together for a structure to survive the quadruple threat.

Keywords: built world, firescaping, quadruple threat, storm-proofing, xeriscaping

Houses of Straw, Sticks, and Bricks – Increasing Disaster Resiliency to

Wildfires, Floods, Earthquakes, Wind Events, and the Big Bad Wolf 

Between 2011 and 2020, the Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC) (2021) records over $19 billion in catastrophic losses in Canada. The Canadian Disaster Database (n.d.) shows more than $12 billion in reported losses between 2011 and 2021, just from wildfires, floods, earthquakes, and wind events across Canada. That is 74 disaster level events that displaced almost 360,000 Canadians from their homes in only a decade. This capstone research project will explore solutions to enhance the resiliency of the built world (see glossary) by increasing structural disaster resiliency when encountering wildfires, floods, earthquakes, and wind events (tornadoes, hurricanes, cyclones), henceforth known as the quadruple threat(s). 

Author Amanda Ripley, when interviewed by NPR’s podcast host Neda Ulaby (2008, 22 July), explains it is in everyone’s benefit to become more disaster resilient, especially those who prefer to survive disaster events. One way to achieve disaster resilience is to build homes that are designed from the ground up with structural and materials choices based on resistance and resilience to the quadruple threats. This research will endeavour to compile the best practices for achieving success from current solutions. Then, critically appraise these solutions, before discussing a model solution, followed by exploring gaps, and, finally, determining where future research could further pursue structural disaster resiliency.

Disaster resiliency will take a systems approach to resolve, which will include social, economic, environmental, governmental, and structural solution components. However, this research paper will focus only on structural disaster resiliency solution components to the quadruple threat of wildfires, floods, hurricanes, and wind events. 

Background and Statement of Problem

Public Safety Canada (PSC) has a goal that Canada and Canadians will be resilient to natural disasters and human-caused crises by 2030 (Public Safety Canada, 2019). Similarly, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in the United States of America, has identified (a) increase resiliency and preparedness, (b) breakdown barriers to information sharing, and (c) improve interdisciplinary research, as key national goals for improving resiliency in their country (Department of Homeland Security, 2015; Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2018; Obama, 2011). 

Resiliency to natural disasters or human-caused crises requires a systems approach including physical, social, economic, and environmental solution components. Additionally, these components have impacts at the individual, community, business, and governmental levels. Each time a disaster destroys a community the process of rebuilding begins again. When the built world is not destroyed by disaster events, the cycle of destruction and rebuilding is interrupted. 

Research Questions

  • How to improve the structural disaster resiliency to wildfire, floods, earthquakes, and wind events (tornadoes, hurricanes, cyclones? 
  • What structural or material characteristics provide greater resilience to the quadruple threat? 
  • How does knowing which structural or material characteristics that can provide greater resilience to the quadruple threat, contribute to enhancing resiliency in the community of existing structures requiring retrofits or renovations? 

Rationale

Taking a systems approach to resolving resiliency of the built world towards natural disasters and human-caused crises will require finding components from physical solutions, as well as social, economic, and environmental solutions. This research will focus on components that provide physical solutions to the quadruple threat to enhance the structural disaster resiliency to dwellings. The research questions will guide what is being sought and snowball sampling the literature will guide where the solutions will be found. To prevent falling into (and possibly being trapped in) a research silo, as cautioned by FEMA (2018), this research will cross research disciplinary lines within academic literature and beyond, to industry and agency grey literature to find concrete solutions. 

Search Strategy

Finding the Evidence

The purpose of this research project is to capture the best practices to ensure the built world can survive disaster events caused by fire, flood, earthquake, and/or wind. If built to this standard from the outset, communities would be more resilient and the most vulnerable in our society would suffer a little less. Further, if a community were to suffer a disaster event, building back better to a standard that would increase resilience of the built structures in the community would further contribute to future disaster resilience. Finally, retrofitting current structures to incorporate as many of the best practices found by this research will also aid in enhancing the disaster resilience of a community. The cost benefit analysis of what constitutes best practices will have to extend to include what is the best benefit of the community, not just the economic benefit of the land developer or construction contractor. 

Types of Evidence

Figure 1

Hurricane Ike 2008, Bolivar Peninsula, TX – Lone House
Note. National Weather Service, IMG_9179 (n.d.)

Figure 2

Hurricane Ike 2008, Bolivar Peninsula, TX – Hurricane “Proof” Houses
Note. National Weather Service, IMG_9195 (n.d.)

 An anecdotal claim could insist that all the houses in Figures 1 and 2, must be hurricane “proof” because they survived Hurricane Ike. 

Finally, theoretical evidence: evidence that follows a logical chain of association between known facts and postulates hypothetical solutions that “should” be true but have not been proven true via the scientific method. For example, in theory, if a dwelling is constructed of fireproof and waterproof materials, using correct building techniques the dwelling should survive wildfires and floods. Finding evidence from multiple sources, crossing research disciplines, and exploring expert, non-academic resources will all contribute to finding solutions that meet the needs of individual homeowners to mitigate the hazards presented by the quadruple threat. Furthermore, all information formats will be valid for exploration including visual, audio, video, and written. 

Literature Search

Figure 3 

Literature Search Sources
Notes. Blue – Grey Literature, Orange – Academic Literature, Grey – YouTube, Mustard – Blog, Violet – Books, Green – Images, Yellow – Chapters, and Maroon – Podcast. Created in Excel.

 Of the grey literature sources, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) proved to be an essential source hosting 12% of cited documents, followed by the Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction (ICLR) with 5%. Other notable sources included the Insurance Institute for Business and Home Safety (IBHS), British Columbia FireSmart, the Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC), the University of Nevada, Reno (UNR), and the National Fire Prevention Association (NFPA) contributing 3% each. The grey literature focuses on solutions and real-world applications of the information to enhance structural disaster resiliency and proved valuable for this research. 

YouTube proved to be an important resource that both captured the information and allowed the researcher to review the experiments or field information and garner a deeper understanding of the subject material presented. For example, it is much easier to understand a firebrand blizzard or ember storm when watching the IBHS (2011) video when a full-size house is being tested in the IBHS Research Lab than to read about the concerns presented by firebrands or embers igniting debris in a rain gutter as in the Colorado Springs Fire Department (CSFD) manual (2022, p. 17). While YouTube may not be a prime academic source for research papers, YouTube does offer an advantage over reading written material by allowing the researcher to witness evidence for themselves, which enhances understanding and learning comprehension. 

The literature search led beyond books, reports, articles, and videos to a wealth of research centres located around the globe – Canada, Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom, even Nepal. Compiling contact information for these research centres will aid in future research (see Appendix). Natural Resource Canada (NRC) was a treasure trove find, with centres dedicated to forestry, geology, and hydrology. The same cannot be said for Environment and Climate Change Canada, whose web presence and resources were not up to the standard of NRC or other research centres, such as those under the domain of America’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); such as, the National Hurricane Center (NHC), National Severe Storm Laboratory (NSSL), or the Storm Prediction Center (SPC). The IBHS Research Lab and the US Forest Service – Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory have both contributed greatly to understanding wildfire characteristics and how homes in the wildland urban interface (WUI) impact fire progress. Not to mention the excellent collaborations between academic institutions, like the Cyclone Testing Station (CTS) which is part of James Cook University (Australia), the Ark Flood Centre and University of Hull (United Kingdom), or the Wall of Wind (WoW) hurricane simulator at the Florida International University. There are also earthquake focused partnerships such as the Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research (PEER) Center between the University of Washington and University California – Berkeley or the Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER) at the University of Buffalo. Suffice to say, each of these research facilities conduct experiments, publish research papers and reports, and advance what is known about these disaster hazards and how best to mitigate the effects. 

All in all, the quantity and quality of available research material was vast, partly due to the broad research topic including four disaster hazard events, and the fact that, each of these topics have been well researched to find answers to enhance resiliency and mitigate vulnerabilities. The selected items cited were chosen as they contributed to answering the research questions and offered credible solutions from reputable sources. Even the blog posts were of a high quality, written by knowledgeable authors. Follow-up research on this topic could easily consider three or four times the volume of sources to produce a thorough master’s thesis or doctoral dissertation. 

Critical Appraisal

Critically appraising the data found in the literature search will explore common themes, conflicts and alternate solutions to the hazard threats presented by each of the quadruple threats. Resiliency is a broad topic with many focuses. A good introduction comes from the Fitzgerald and Fitzgerald (2005), review of Bruneau et al.’s (2003) work with the MCEER framework for “the 4 R’s” of resiliency (a) robustness, (b) redundancy, (c) resourcefulness, and (d) rapidity, and the four dimensions of community functioning (a) technical, (b) organizational, (c) social, and (d) economic (p. 5). Fitzgerald & Fitzgerald (2005) adapt the MCEER concepts for earthquake resilience and apply them to their wildfire resiliency research. Additionally, Pinkus (2019) finds resilient designs rely on three key factors: (a) hazard mitigation, (b) passive survivability, and (c) adaption (p. 7). Furthermore, FEMA P-737 (2008) identifies four factors impacting a building’s surviving wildfire: (a) topography and weather, (b) defensible space, (c) building envelope, and (d) community infrastructure (p. 6). 

Wildfires 

Fireproofing is not a new idea or concept, products made from the mineral Asbestos have been in use for more than a millennia and have been used for cladding and roofing homes since the early twentieth century (History Cooperative, 2016; InspectAPedia, n.d.). Unfortunately, airborne Asbestos fibres are carcinogenic when inhaled and only NFIP (2008), makes mention of Asbestos-cement board in classifying it as a good resilient material for wall or ceiling tiles resistant to flood conditions (p. 7). Fortunately, there are other materials to enhance wildfire structural resiliency. Current solutions will be briefly described, starting at the roof, and working down to the yard. Researchers and agencies alike, unanimously recommended Class ‘A’ rated roof claddings, including asphalt shingles, various metal products, slate, and clay or cement tile (CSFD, 2022; FEMA, (2008); Quarles et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2016; Syphard et al., 2017; UNR, 2020). 
Moving down to the leading edge of the roof, rain gutters, drip edge flashing, and soffit vents all present areas of vulnerability to embers and firebrand accumulations that could ignite and work their way into the attic space and burn the home from the top down (IBHS, 2011; IBHS, 2021; CSFD, 2022). Gutters need to be kept clear of leaf and needle debris to prevent providing ignition fuel to an ember storm. Consequentially, metal drip edge flashing should be secured under the roof cladding and extend down over the fascia and behind the gutters to prevent debris fires gaining attic entry via the leading edge of the roof (IBHS, 2021; Quarles et al., 2010). Soffit and attic vents should be covered with fine metal mesh (1/8”) to stop ember and firebrand entry (CSFD, 2022). Alternatively, fire shutters (that can be affixed over vents, windows, and doors) work well to protect homes from fire inundation through openings into a home, provided sufficient preparation time allows mounting and securing the fire shutters before arrival of the fire or evacuation of residents (FEMA, 2013). 
Similar to roofing, cladding for a building’s sides should be of non-combustible materials and constructed in a fire-resistant manner layering non-combustible materials on framing that is protected inside and out (BC FireSmart, 2019; FEMA, 2008; FLASH, 2021). A layer of fire rated (FR) Gyproc on the inside and outside of the wall framing would assist resiliency to fire. While adding a fireproof insulation, like Rockwool, would enhance the resiliency by another factor (Carr, 2020; Roos, 2019). Alternately, concrete provides a couple other fire resilient options, first, is the use of insulated concrete forms (ICF) (FEMA, 2008; Inside Edition, 2021). ICFs stack like Lego ® blocks to form foundation and above grade walls that are then filled with concrete and rebar to create the structure. The second option is pre-stressed/pre-cast concrete wall panels. These panels are poured and cured in a factory environment and then assembled onsite creating a concrete building (PCI Foundation, 2017). 
Other fireproofing mitigation innovations deserving mention include interior and exterior fire sprinkler systems (FEMA, 2008; NFPA, 2018), unventilated attic designs (FEMA, 2008), and the Firezat fire blanket house wrap (Case Western Reserve University, 2010; CNBC Television, 2021; Firezat wildfire, 2021). Sprinkler systems can be either automatic or manually operated and require a water source with sufficient water pressure and volume to be effective. Unventilated attic designs remove the opportunity for attic fires by removing the attic space. Although, condensation management concerns may restrict the use of this design in regions with humid climates (FEMA, 2008). The Firezat house wrap looks promisingly effective, despite a significant application period required to properly install and protect a home before evacuation from the wildfire (CNBC Television, 2021). 
Finally, effective wildfire mitigation requires the management of combustible debris on or around the home and the use of FireSmart or Firewise (NFPA, 2022) landscaping strategies and tactics (BC FireSmart, 2021; FireSmart Canada, n.d.; Firewise, n.d.). Both programs trace their lineage back to Dr. Jack Cohen, a wildfire researcher at the Missoula [Montana] Fire Research Lab operated by the US Forest Service (Berry et al., 2016; NFPA, 2015). The FireSmart program adopted in Canada has an individual homeowner focus, while the Firewise program in the United States promotes a community approach to wildfire mitigation. Both programs stress the importance of homeowner engagement and involvement. Success is ensured by implementing improvements within 100’ of their home, such as xeriscaping, landscaping, and firescaping (combustible debris management) (BC FireSmart, 2019; Ewing & Maier, 2016; Labossiere & McGee, 2017; UNR, 2011). 

Floods 

While the threat presented by wildfire can be seen a homogenous force, flooding conditions can attack in multiple forms from slow, steady inundation right through to rapid, violent infiltration. As a result, structural disaster resilient solutions to flooding will be location dependent; since the solutions for flooding caused by precipitation accumulation in low laying areas will differ from areas that have flood water infiltration accompanied by current, flow, waves, or waterborne debris. These factors are further complicated as flooding is not always the primary threat and may only be a secondary effect of a hurricane, cyclone, or earthquake. Therefore, not all flood solutions will work in all environments or locales. Adopting a preparedness attitude, mitigating for the worse-case scenario should contribute to identifying the characteristics that carry beyond a single threat environment. 
For those who find themselves in an area with a flooding hazard there are mitigations that can be undertaken ensuring new construction (or retrofitting an existing structure) enhances the structural flood resiliency. Start by identifying which flood hazards are greatest and use this information to determine which foundation type should be used, such as a pile/pier/column permanent static elevation (PSE) for those in hurricane country or exposed to fluvial flooding with water flows greater than 5 feet per second (English et al., 2019; NFIP, 2008). Whereas those with seasonal or weather induced flooding resulting in a static body of water, an amphibious buoyant foundation, that rises and lowers with the flood waters may be the correct option (English et al., 2019; Piatek & Wojnowska-Heciak, 2020). When using a more traditional style foundation with footings and concrete or masonry block walls ensure compliance with local buildings codes, especially if the foundation is below the base flood elevation (BFE). Wet proofing the foundation will require flood venting enabling equalization of hydrostatic pressure on the inside and outside of the foundation during flooding and allow drainage when flood water recede (FEMA, 2011). The NFIP does not allow living space to occupy areas below the BFE nor dry proofing (NFIP, 2008). 
Localized flooding (pluvial) can also impact individual dwellings with the most common causes being backup of sewer lines into the basement or failure of the drainage system. Sewer backups can be mitigated with the use of a sewer backflow valve properly installed and maintained between the residence and the city sewer line. Failures of the drainage system can be prevented by ensuring the whole system was installed properly and maintained regularly eliminating build up of debris clogging gutters and downspouts. Metal drip edges, sealed roofing, flashing, and building wrap help prevent and manage moisture infiltration into the building envelope. Lot elevation should be graded away from the foundation and towards drainage swales or city storm water drains (FEMA, 2011; FLASH, 2021; IBC, 2016; ICLR, n.d.; Pinkus, 2019). 
Enhancing flood structure disaster resiliency, like other disaster hazards, requires a systems approach with complimentary components working together. In addition, to the items already mentioned here a few more components that will enhance performance: (a) mount utilities above the BFE, this includes wiring, electrical outlets, appliances; (b) landscape with multiple elevations that direct the flow of water away from the dwelling and towards storm water drains, including the use of swales, levees, berms, floodwalls, or dykes; (c) control water build-up in the dwelling and inner landscape with sump pumps that evacuate excess water outside flood protections; and (d) a backup power system to keep the sump pumps operational when grid power fails (FEMA, 2011; FLASH, 2021; IBC, 216). This contingency should be operational for a normal flood cycle of the region (four to forty days). Recognizing that failure of the pumps will result in water inundation. Liao (2012) cautions that dependency on flood defences leads to a false sense of security, and true flood resiliency is achieved by learning to live with the cycles of the river, including getting wet when waters rise. To do otherwise, invites greater impact to residents when flood defences fail, and they are not prepared for the resulting inundation (Journey et al., 2015). 

Earthquakes 

Duggal (2013) recommends earthquake-resistant designs include regular, monolithic design with same column spacing and sizing from foundation to peak. No tall stories, relative to other stories, or you achieve a soft storey and earthquake failure. The best design is a “strong column – weak beam”, because the opposite “strong beam – weak column” results in total structure collapse (Duggal, 2013). FEMA 232 (2006) supports this position when describing an earthquake resistant house as a simple rectangular shape; bracing walls distribute uniformly & symmetrically through whole house; no large concentrations of weigh; bracing walls directly above each other; bracing longer on lower levels than upper levels; no split-levels, or offsets (p. 29). Efficient earthquake energy transfers from foundation to roof, require all systems to be connected. 
Chiaro et al. (2019) provide an insightful solution to enhancing resiliency to earthquakes and repurposing recycled rubber products from old tires. The use of concrete-rubber blends for foundations and footings increases the elasticity allowing a return to the initial positioning once the quaking stops. Furthermore, when gravel aggregates and rubber are blended for the base below the footing and used to backfill the foundations and even greater capacity to absorb and isolate quaking motion is effectively achieved (Chiaro et al., 2019). This research shows strong promise and could have profound positive impacts for homeowners in earthquake zones. Homeowners in the greater Victoria, British Columbia area would benefit from this innovation as the 2016 seismic vulnerability assessment identified 65% of the housing stock could be “red tagged” and made uninhabitable in a worse-case earthquake (VC Structural Dynamics, 2016). 
ICLR’s QuakeSmart (2016) provides further suggestions for quake-proofing a home by (a) installing a seismic shutoff valve at gas meter, (b) upgrading windows to tempered glass or laminated glass, (c) bracing masonry chimneys and ensuring sleeping areas are not below fall zone of chimneys, (d) using anti-tip brackets/braces/straps/devices on utilities, shelving units, heavy appliances, (e) using lockable cabinet/cupboard doors to prevent contents from spilling out during a quake, (f) retrofitting cripple walls into existing homes, (g) anchoring home to the foundation, (h) using band/block/bridging on floor joists and roof trusses – aids in transfer of energy to the foundation, (i) using hurricane ties/straps to secure roof to the walls, (j) using structural plywood sheathing on the roof – helps strengthens the structure, (k) heavy tile & slate not recommended, as roofing can dislodge and fall during quake, and (l) dormers, skylights, complex roof structures are not recommended as they weaken the roof structure. 

Wind Events (Tornadoes, Hurricanes, Cyclones) 

Wind is a constant companion to all geographical locations, with many experiencing some form of severe wind conditions. After the 2013 Moore, Oklahoma tornado, building codes were adjusted from a 90 mph (145 km/h) standard to a 135 mph (217 km/h) standard (Stevenson et al., 2020). Similarly, the IBHS FORTIFIED home program enhanced building standards in hurricane country to a Category 3 Hurricane standard. Meanwhile, in Canada, Stevenson et al. (2020) are endeavouring to enhance the National Building Code of Canada to a wind standard (in windy areas) to an EF-2 Tornado (maximum wind speed of 217 km/h) standard. Preventing structure damage due to severe wind requires knowing the limits of the hazard. Hurricane researchers, Perez-Alarcon et al. (2021) share that by the year 2100, the Gulf of Mexico could experience proposed Category 6 Hurricanes with wind speeds higher than 380 km/h. That amazing wind speed was exceeded in 1996 when Tropical Cyclone Olivia slammed Western Australia on April 10th with winds of 408 km/h (Arthur et al., 2021)! If the challenges of designing and building dwellings to endure high winds was not difficult enough, most severe wind events are also accompanied by flying debris that strike stationary objects – trees, bridges, cell towers, power poles and buildings with devastating impact forces (FEMA, 2021; Ginger et al., 2021). 
Wind events in this research constitute two separate threat profiles – (a) wind and dry or (b) wind and wet. Tornadoes represent the first and safety in the form of safe rooms or storm shelters being built below ground, while hurricanes and cyclones represent the second and safety for those unable to evacuate harm’s way must be sought above expected high water levels. Multi-hazard safe rooms or storm shelters designs must assess real conditions and make decisions based on those facts (FEMA, 2021). Other approaches include designing and building the entire dwelling to a standard to survive an encounter with a wind event. Deltec Homes (2020) suggest fourteen components that make up the anatomy of a hurricane proof home, a few deserve mention: (a) use a steep roof with a 6/12 pitch which reduces lift, (b) use a round design to be more aerodynamic and offer less wind resistance, (c) use radial floor joists and roofing trusses, so no matter which direction the wind is coming from the force is distributed equally across the whole structure, (d) use 5/8” plywood instead of 5/8” OSB, (e) continuous metal strapping from roof to foundation to tie the building together, and (f) impact resistant doors and windows. 
Other considerations include using ASCE 7-05-2006 rated storm shutters over doors and windows (ensuring shutters are anchored to building framing, not just to the window); using ring shank nails to fasten roof sheathing; high wind rated vents for attics and soffits; avoid having skylights on the roof; avoid locating windows or doors on the corners, avoid complex roof systems; hip style roofs offers superior aerodynamics compared to gable roofs; locations near salt water need to use stainless steel fasteners, straps, braces, and brackets that are resistant to salt corrosion; and single storey dwellings are more resilient than either two or three-storey homes (FEMA, 2006; FEMA, 2011; FEMA, 2010; IBHS, 2022; ICLR, 2012/2018; Olson et al., 2022). Similarly, Garth (2021) supports the use of universal concrete construction in tornado areas and PCI Foundation (2017) members successfully design and build pre-stressed/pre-cast concrete buildings in both hurricane and tornado regions. Olson et al. (2022) reveal that edge mounted turbines effectively diffuse wind effects on buildings or roof edges. Finally, Sheng et al. (2022) and FEMA, P-499, (2010) agree that natural coastal landscaping plays a positive role in protecting homes from hurricane effects, and recommend leaving (even enhancing) coastal mangroves, marshes, and dunes. 

Discussion 

Despite the seemingly incongruent nature of the quadruple threats, six consistent recommendation emerged common to all disaster threats: (a) complex roofs which have skylights, dormers, or multiple levels are more vulnerable to disasters, (b) hip roof styles, with steep roof pitch are more capable of shedding wind and water, (c) continuous load connection from roof to foundation enhances structural resiliency, (d) debris management prevents adding to the scale of disaster, (e) shutters are an effective defence when deployed before the event occurs, and (f) using double or triple pane window units made with tempered glass are universally recommended. Additionally, the use of fireproof and/or waterproof materials and construction techniques were found not to negatively impact dwelling resiliency to the quadruple threat. 
Disaster resiliency will require a concerted effort with many intertwined components to create a successful system for individuals, communities, and countries. Each must play their part; individuals need to be engaged in their own success. At the same time both governments and the insurance industry have a role to play to encourage resiliency enhancing behaviours through grant programs, rate reductions, and/or tax incentives. Furthermore, educational programs and literature must be made available and promoted, to inform consumers and governments alike to ensure new projects are built to a better standard, not the lowest safe level. This is especially important after a disaster level event impacts a community and the opportunity and need to build back better is apparent to everyone concerned. Plans to maximize this rebuilding window of opportunity must be developed well before the need to operationalize them. Without forward-thinking-planning, the window of opportunity will be wasted, and the status quo will be the fallback solution perpetuating the disaster-rebuild cycle. 

Solution Model 

To promote a shift to disaster resilient housing, everyone in the process needs to know their specific role and what influence each wields. The home buyer, when properly educated to the benefits of a resilient home can make their preference known by using their purchasing power to sway how homes are built, which features are included, and what standard is acceptable (FLASH, 2021). However, this cannot be achieved in a vacuum; others play critical roles as well. The insurance industry can contribute immediately by offering rate reductions for homes that are designed and built to a resilient standard and maintained to that standard. Similarly, governments can do their part by updating building codes to a resilient standard, offering tax reductions for disaster resilient homes or grants to build to that level, and then inspecting and enforcing the building code. The construction industry can either self-police or have enforcement applied from government agencies, to ensure building standards are met during home construction or renovation. Membership in local homebuilder’s associations could require quality standards for membership. Without membership, belonging to the better business bureau would be impossible; thereby helping consumers identify approved contractors. Finally, the professional industry and academia must work together to ensure all research that contributes to more resilient building construction is published and made public through open access. Time to end knowledge silos and pay-wall access restrictions, some other method of cost recovery will need to be devised. If there is buy-in from all stakeholders, the shift to a new paradigm of structural disaster resilient housing will become a reality and the expected standard. 
The proposed solution for a disaster resilient dwelling will endeavour to incorporate as many of the best practices into a single structure as possible (see Figure 4). The research has shown that a simple hip style roof, with at least a 3/12 pitch is the way to go. In Canada, that minimum should be at least a 4/12 pitch to also shed snow, however, Deltec Homes’ (2020) suggestion of a 6/12 pitch could be a universal roofing solution, as it would work well for wind events, water, snow, and wildfire ember storms. The use of 5/8” structural plywood roof sheathing, using ring shank nails, on cross-braced roofing trusses; clad with a Class ‘A’ roofing material and secured to the walls with proper hurricane ties and straps would create a roofing system that could weather any storm. The wall system should be framed on 16” centres stick construction with impact rated cladding over 5/8” fire rated (FR) Gyproc, screwed to exterior 5/8” plywood wall sheathing which is secured to the wall framing. Between the exterior sheathing and FR Gyproc would be a layer of house wrap for moisture control of the building envelope. The exterior walls would be insulated with a fireproof insulation, like Rockwool, and the interior of the wall would have a layer of 6-mil poly vapour barrier between the framing and the interior 5/8” FR Gyproc. The walls would be anchored to the floors and have continuous metal strapping from roof to foundations to ensure a continuous load path for strength and structural unity. Doors, windows, and vents would have storm and fire shutters properly mounted, which would need to be secured in the closed position before an event. Also, windows and doors would be impact-rated with tempered double pane glass. Utilities would be mounted above the BFE, seismic gas shutoff valves would be installed, as would backflow valves to prevent sewer backup floods. Homes in a floodplain would not have basements. Gutter systems would be kept free of debris to prevent localized flooding or providing an ignition source to wildfire generated ember storms. Landscaping would incorporate FireSmart recommendations for Zones 0 through Zone 3 (first 100’ around home). Landscaping would grade the elevation away from the foundation to prevent overland flood waters from inundating the home. Following these suggestions, more homes would survive a disaster level encounter with the quadruple threats and speed up recovery. 

Gaps & Future Research 

Gaps

Effective communication between emergency management organizations and the public requires communication tools that resonate with the public, like the FireSmart program. Therefore, one must ask why is the FireSmart program not emulated for the other disaster types? Public Safety Canada or FEMA would benefit (and so would the public) if there was a standardized communication tool that was disaster event specific, and mitigation focused to aid the public. While similar terms are used for: QuakeReady, StormReady, FloodSmart, QuakeSmart and CycloneReady; these programs are individually created but lack a standard format. The FireSmart program is successful and well received, there is an opportunity to fill this gap and create similarly effective communications tools for floods, earthquakes, and wind events. 

Future Research Starting Points 

  • Wood studs versus steel studs, which enhances wildfire resiliency of structures greater? 
  • Which dwelling shape is most resilient to the quadruple threat? Square/cube, octagon/octa-column, hexagon/hexa-column, round/cylinder, round/sphere, or geodesic dome? 
  • Which seismic motion isolation devices or seismic damping devices are least cost prohibitive for homeowners in earthquake prone regions? 
  • Design a quadruple threat resilient home, build samples and subject to full-scale home testing in the IBHS Research Lab against an ember storm, in the WoW Hurricane Simulator against a Cat 5 Hurricane, in the ARK Flood Lab against a swift water flood, and the MCEER Earthquake Simulator against a 9.0 earthquake. Determine by primary data which design, features, materials, and construction methods create the most disaster resilient home.
  • Test the proposed quadruple threat wall design (see Figure 5) to determine survivability and conduct a cost-benefit analysis.

Conclusion 

In the end, resiliency (or lack there of) falls to the homeowner, community, and local government; if they (individually or collectively) do not buy-in and become active participants in their own resiliency; then, they are doomed to fail. On the other hand, if they are committed to cooperating and collaborating; with the correct education, technical support, and materials then they will succeed. The first barrier to breach is denial, which requires education, role-models, and champions (Labossiere & McGee, 2017; Ripley, 2008). As Ripley (2008) postulates, denial is followed by a period of contemplation (deliberation) before the decisive moment for buy-in, cooperation, and action. Therefore, opportunities to breakdown barriers to advance resiliency objectives should be well planned and ready to action on a moments notice. Resiliency is an active choice that becomes a lifestyle, and all the well-intentioned research, plans, or solutions will be for naught if those who would benefit are frozen in a state of denial. Start with small, incremental steps to ease homeowners, communities, and local governments to buy-in, such as construction techniques and materials that enhance structural disaster resiliency to the quadruple threats – wildfires, floods, earthquakes, and wind events (tornadoes, hurricanes, cyclones). 

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Tables 2

Aerodynamic

The science which treats of the air under the action of force and of their mechanical effects.

Built world

Synonym for built environment, dealing with urban planning, architecture, human geography, civil engineering; refers to the human-made environment.

Carcinogenic

Cancer causing.

Cripple wall

A wooden wall from the foundation to the first floor of the structure, usually less than a full storey, creates a crawl space beneath the dwelling. Must be braced with plywood to provide seismic protection.

Dry proofing

Sealed to be impermeable to the passage of floodwaters.

Fireproofing

A passive fire protection measure, using non-combustible materials or making something fire-resistant.

Firescapes

Landscaping technique that inhibits the spread of fire.

Floor joist

Any parallel structural members of a floor system that support, and are usually immediately beneath, the floor.

Gable roof

A roof style that has flat ends with a triangular profile. If unbraced these ends can leads to structural fail in high winds. Only slopes in two directions.

Geodynamic

Geodynamics is a subfield of geophysics dealing with movements of the Earth. i.e., earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building.

Hip roof

A peaked roof that slopes in four directions.

Hydrodynamic

Loads imposed on an object by water flowing against & around it.

Hydrostatic

Loads imposed on a surface by a standing mass of water.

Quadruple threat(s)

Wildfires, floods, earthquakes, & wind events (tornadoes, hurricanes, cyclones).

Rafter

A sloped structural member that connects the roof ridge pole to the wall plate.

Rebar

Short for “reinforcement bar”, this is a steel reinforcing rod used as a concrete tension device.

Resilient/Resiliency

The ability to recover quickly, return to the original state.

Resistant

The ability to resist change.

Roof truss

An engineered roof component that bridges exterior roof sheathing to the wall plate, depending on design it may or may not require a central ridge pole/beam.

Snowball sampling

A sampling technique where current subjects provide referrals for future subjects. Adapted to gathering articles from a reference list.

Storm-proofing

To make a dwelling impervious to the damage caused by a storm.

Systems theory

The interdisciplinary study of complex systems and how components interrelate with each other in nature, science, and society.

Thermodynamic

Deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation.

Wet proofing

A flood retrofit technique that allows floodwaters to enter in such a way as to minimize damage to the structure.

Xeriscaping

Landscaping technique that uses materials and plants that need very little water. Used frequently in arid climates.

Notes. Definitions found using DuckDuckGo! search engine.

Table 3 

ASCE

American Society of Civil Engineering

BFE

Base Flood Elevation

CSFD

Colorado Springs Fire Department

CTS

Cyclone Testing Station

DFE

Design Flood Elevation

FEMA

Federal Emergency Management Agency

FLASH

Federal Alliance for Safe Homes

IBC

Insurance Bureau of Canada

IBHS

Insurance Institute for Business and Home Safety

ICLR

Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction

MCEER

Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research

NFIP

National Flood Insurance Program

NOAA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

OSB

Oriented Strand Board

PSC

Public Safety Canada

UNR

University of Nevada, Reno

WHIRL

Wind & Hurricane Impact Research Laboratory

WoW

Wall of Wind (Hurricane Simulator)

Figure 4 

Systematic Mitigations to the Quadruple Threat Impacts

Notes. Red for wildfire, blue for flood, brown for earthquake, and grey for wind events.


Figure 5

Proposed Quadruple Threat Resilient Wall Design 

Note. This wall construction should improve structural disaster resiliency to survive missile impacts and the quadruple threat – Figure 5 inside to out: 5/8” FR Gyproc, 6-mil vapour barrier, 2x8 framing on 16” centres and filled with Rockwool insulation, 5/8” plywood sheathing, Tyvek wrap, 5/8” FR Gyproc, 1 ½" x 1 ½" page wire, Cement board cladding. 

Appendix 

 

Research Directory 

1

Facility: ARK – National Flood Resilience Centre

Institution: University of Hull (UK)

Website: https://arkfloodcentre.co.uk/

Address:

Contact: Dr. Giles Davidson, Project Lead

Area of Research: Flooding

2

Facility: Bushfire & Natural Hazards CRC (Cooperative Research Centres)

Institution: Australasian Fire and Emergency Services Authorities Council (AFAC)

Website: https://www.bnhcrc.com.au/ and https://www.afac.com.au/

Address: Level 1, 340 Albert Street, East, Melbourne, Victoria, 3002, Australia

Contact: office@bnhcrc.com.au

Area of Research: Bushfires

3

Facility: Center for Earthquake Research and Information (CERI)

Institution: University of Memphis

Website: https://www.memphis.edu/ceri/

Address: 3890 Central Avenue, Memphis, TN, 38152

Contact: Assistant Professor, Thomas Gebel

Area of Research: Earthquakes; Focus on New Madrid Seismic Zone

4

Facility: Cyclone Testing Station (CTS)

Institution: James Cook University

Website: https://www.jcu.edu.au/cyclone-testing-station

Address: Townsville, Queensland, 4811, Australia

Contact: Dr. David Henderson (david.henderson@jcu.edu.au), Chief Engineer

Area of Research: Cyclones, Storm Surge Flooding, Wind Driven Rain, Building assessments

5

Facility: Earthquakes Canada

Institution: Natural Resources Canada

Website: https://earthquakescanada.nrcan.gc.ca/index-en.php

Address:

Contact:

Area of Research: Earthquakes; National Building Code of Canada – Seismic Hazard Values

6

Facility: Flood and River Ice Break-up

Institution: Natural Resources Canada

Website: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/science-and-data/science-and-research/natural-hazards/floods-river-ice-break/10660

Address:

Contact:

Area of Research: Floods; Flood mapping, Flood forecasting

7

Facility: Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC)

Institution: Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC)

Website: http://www.ibc.ca/on/

Address:

Contact: 1-844-227-5422

Area of Research: Fire, Flood, Earthquake, Wind, Hail & Ice; Disaster preparedness from insurance point-of-view, statistics

8

Facility: IBHS Research Center

Institution: Insurance Institute for Business & Home Safety (IBHS)

Website: https://ibhs.org/about-ibhs/ibhs-research-center/

Address: 4775 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL, 33617 & 5335 Richburg Road, Richburg, SC, 29729

Contact: info@ibhs.org

Area of Research: Wildfire, Wind, Rain, Hail; Full scale testing for homes; FORTIFIED Home program

9

Facility: Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction (ICLR)

Institution: Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction (ICLR)

Website: https://www.iclr.org/

Address: Western University, Amit Chakma Building, Suite 4405, 1151 Richmond Street, London, ON, N6A 5B9

Contact:

Area of Research: Wildfire, Flood, Earthquake, Wind, Hail; Wind Tunnel at Western University, Quakesmart.ca program, Guidebook for Homeowners

10

Facility: Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory

Institution: US Department of Agriculture – US Forest Service

Website: https://www.firelab.org/

Address: 5775 US Highway #10 West, Missoula, MT, 59808-9361

Contact: SM.FS.mso_firelab@usda.gov

Area of Research: Wildfire; Firebrand generator & Fire testing lab  

11

Facility: Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER)

Institution: University of Buffalo

Website: https://www.buffalo.edu/mceer/about.html

Address: 212 Ketter Hall, Buffalo, NY, 14260-4300

Contact: mceer@buffalo.edu

Area of Research: Earthquakes; Earthquake simulator

12

Facility: National Earthquake Monitoring and Research Center

Institution: Government of Nepal

Website: http://www.seismonepal.gov.np/

Address: Department of Mines & Geology, Lainchaur, Kathmandu, Nepal

Contact: info@seismonepal.gov.np

Area of Research: Earthquakes

13

Facility: National Severe Storm Laboratory (NSSL)

Institution: National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Website: https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/research/flood/ , https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/research/wind/ ,

Address: National Severe Storm Laboratory, 120 David L Boren Boulevard, Norman OK, 73072

Contact: nssl.outreach@noaa.gov

Area of Research: Floods, Wind

14

Facility: Northern Forestry Centre

Institution: Natural Resources Canada

Website: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/science-data/research-centres-labs/forestry-research-centres/northern-forestry-centre/13485

Address: 53520-122 Street, Edmonton, AB, T6H 3S5

Contact:

Area of Research: Wildfire; Canadian Wildland Fire Information System (CWFIS) https://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/home

15

Facility: Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research (PEER) Center

Institution: University of Washington (University of California, Berkeley)

Website: https://www.washington.edu/research/research-centers/pacific-earthquake-engineering-research-center-peer/ (http://peer.berkeley.edu/)

Address: Davis Hall, University of Washington

Contact: Director, Marc Eberhard (eberhard@uw.edu)

Area of Research: Earthquakes

16

Facility: Pacific Forestry Centre

Institution: Natural Resources Canada

Website: https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/science-data/research-centres-labs/forestry-research-centres/pacific-forestry-centre/13489

Address: 506 West Burnside Road, Victoria, BC, V8Z 1M5

Contact:

Area of Research: Wildfire; National Fire Management Resource Demand Model, 7370 documents library

17

Facility: Severe Storm Prediction Education & Evacuation from Disasters (SSPEED) Center

Institution: Rice University

Website: https://www.sspeed.rice.edu

Address: 6100 Main Street, MS317, Keck Hall 117, Houston, TX, 77005

Contact: sspeed@rice.edu

Area of Research: Wind, Partners with other universities in the region

18

Facility: Wall of Wind (WoW) Hurricane Simulator

Institution: Florida International University (FIU)

Website: https://cee.fiu.edu/research/facilities/wall-of-wind & https://fiu.designsafe-ci.org/

Address:

Contact:

Area of Research: Hurricane; Category 5 hurricane simulator

19

Facility: Wind & Hurricane Impact Research Laboratory (WHIRL)

Institution: Florida Institute of Technology (Florida Tech)

Website: https://research.fit.edu/whirl/projects/florida-public-hurricane-loss-model-fphlm/

Address: 150 West University Boulevard, Melbourne, FL, 32901

Contact:

Area of Research: Hurricanes

Notes. In alphabetical order by facility name. 


Well there we are folks, after to the slow build-up, that is my capstone research project. Hopefully, someone will benefit from this.

Here are the links to the other related posts: 

Research Poster

Literature Review from 2019 

https://mtnmanblog.blogspot.com/2023/08/beyond-three-little 

Literature Review from 2022 

Research Proposal from 2022 



























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