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| Maycroft Hills (photo by V.A. McMillan) |
V. Andrew McMillan
Justice Institute of British Columbia
RESM-2100 Research Methods
Dr. Valerie Sheppard
Due Date: 15 October 2019
Word Count: 3314
Abstract
In acknowledgement of the World Economic
Forum’s 2019 Global Risk Report finding that 800 million people face the risk
of endangered living space in more than 570 coastal cities around the world;
the need for disaster resilient communities is self-evident. How to create
disaster resilient buildings and communities is explored through a review of
the available literature. The literature did reveal that resilient and
community have many meanings and that a disaster resilient community would have
a complex web of interconnected links – psychological, social, structural,
economic and urban planning. However, a review of the literature failed to
discover any examples of buildings designs or communities’ layouts that were
successful at surviving wildfires, floods, cyclones and earthquakes. Further
research is required to determine how the provincial government will enable or facilitate
a disaster resilient community that can survive wildfires, floods, cyclones and
earthquakes when built on the West Coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia.
Keywords: Disaster Resilient Community, Disaster
Resilient Building, Resilient, Community, Urbanscape, Wildfire, Flood, Cyclone,
Earthquake
The
Global Risk Report 2019 (p. 55), “Already an estimated 800 million people in
more than 570 coastal cities are vulnerable to a sea-level rise of 0.5 metres
by 2050.” And that is just one of many fire, water, wind or earth-based threats
set against residents of this planet. For those wanting to live on the West
Coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia; they will face all four threats –
wildfires, floods, cyclones and earthquakes. This paper will explore the
following questions:
Ø
What
is a disaster resilient community?
Ø
How is
resilient defined in the literature?
Ø
How is
community defined in the literature?
Ø
How
are structures designed to survive wildfires, floods, cyclones &
earthquakes?
Ø
How does
the layout of a township or city impact the survival of wildfires, floods,
cyclones and earthquakes?
Ø
How
would the provincial government enable or facilitate a disaster resilient
community that could survive wildfires, floods, cyclones and earthquakes that
would be located on the West Coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia?
With
so many natural disasters occurring more often and impacting more people around
the globe; it is time to discover how to survive in an ever-increasing hostile
environment. The creation of disaster resilient buildings to be the basic
building block for a disaster resilient community could be the answer for
millions of people around the world who will need a solution in the next two
decades.
The
creation of a disaster resilient community on the West Coast of Vancouver Island,
British Columbia; a region that is expected to face all four threats –
wildfires, floods, cyclones and earthquakes; will become a living example of an
effective solution to living with and through the natural disasters that are
occurring in rising frequency and growing magnitude. This solution can be
replicated around the globe and improve the quality-of-life for millions of
people and hundreds of communities.
How would the
provincial government enable or facilitate a disaster resilient community that
could survive wildfires, floods, cyclones and earthquakes that would be located
on the West Coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia?
The answer to this
question will lead to a blueprint for creating urbanscapes that will improve
the quality-of-life for not just people living on the West Coast of Vancouver
Island; but around the world.
This paper will begin
by reviewing the literature to define resilient and community; followed by
theories & concepts and notable researchers working on disaster resilience,
city resilience and/or urban resilience. Then, this paper will state the method
and scope before illuminating organization & movements that are concerned
about urban resilience; then rules & codes that are being developed to
promote resiliency; followed by examples of failure and success. This paper
will close with discussions and conclusions.
Background
When
change is the only constant; then, the ability to adapt becomes a great
strength. Carrying this idea over to disaster preparedness; this is the ability
to weather natural disasters and return to the normative state as rapidly as
possible incurring minimal harm. So, what is a disaster resilient community?
Before this question
may be answered, the literature needs reviewing to establish the definitions of
resilient and community.
Define Resilience
Resilience is not an
easy word to define according to the literature. Thankfully, Fran Norris (2008)
has tackled this challenge in explicit detail, shown below is her Table 1 (p.129):
 |
Table 1 Resiliency/Resilient Definitions (Norris et al 2008)
As can be seen, as of
2008; there were not less than twenty-one definitions for resilience. Boon et
al (2012) commented that the literature at their time, recorded not less than
twenty-eight definitions of resilience (p.384); including, the reference to the
above twenty-one from Norris et al (2008). Further, the research of Wang et al
(2018) explores the use of Cite Space software to analyse journals to generate
clusters to understand who, where and what is being researched on resiliency. In
contrast, Liao in his Theory to Urban Resilience to Floods (2012) sees
resilience as the process where structures and people are conditioned to
climatic changes and the use of manufactured barriers to control natural events
robs the community of its resilience and opportunity to learn from natural
events. Further, when these barriers fail; the community is not able to
effectively adapt to the sudden change, causing greater harm. For clarity, this
paper will identify with this definition from Boon et al (2012, p.382):
Emergency Management considers resilience essential for
safeguarding communities or building safer communities. Disaster resilience is
seen as a quality, characteristic or result that is developed by processes that
foster or promote it. The ability of an individual, group, community or nation
to deal with unique destabilising situations…
Next,
we need to define community.
Define Community
Community has similar
diverse definitions as resiliency; depending on the point-of-view of the
researcher or the field of study. The main challenge occurs when defining a
community; is not simply, as a group of people associated to a geographic
location or as a group of people connect for social reasons; but as, a complex
interconnected web that includes geographical, sociological, ideological, and
economic connections (Geis 2000; Twigg 2007; Norris et al 2008; Longstaff et al
2010; Boon et al 2012; Doyle 2016 & Romero-Lankao et al 2016). For clarity,
this paper will adopt the definition from Longstaff et al (2010, p. 4):
Communities are unique and have their own local needs,
experiences, resources, and ideas about prevention of, protection against,
response to, and recovery from different types of disasters. Each community has
access to resources and the ability to manipulate and make decisions that
single individuals do not.
Theories & Concepts
While reviewing the
literature several identified concepts and theories became known. Here is a
quick review, in alphabetical order:
Ø AHP – Analytic
Hierarchy Process. Used by Orencio & Fujii (2013) to aid decision-makers in
vulnerable coastal communities in the Philippines.
Ø Bronfenbrenner Model
– Boon et al (2012) explore the connections between Bronfenbrenner Theory of
Bioecology and apply the framework to disaster resiliency in human communities.
Ø CART – Community
Advancing Resilience Toolkit. An assessment tool to help planner and researcher
evaluate community strengths and vulnerabilities to natural disasters. Used by
Pfefferbaum et al (2013) & Pfefferbaum et al (2016).
Ø COPEWELL – Composite
of Post-Event Well-being Model. A self-assessment tool to predict post-incident
community operating level and resiliency. Used by Schoch-Spana et al (2019).
Ø CRI – City Resilience
Index. A self-assessment tool employed by the Rockefeller Foundation to measure
and evaluate the member cities of the 100 Resilient Cities project. (100 RC,
2019).
Ø DRC – Disaster
Resistant Community. A model proposed by Geis (2000) that incorporate
structural codes and integrates social structures to create a community that
can resist disasters and hazard resilient. A concept endorsed by Twigg (2007).
Ø DROP – Disaster
Resilience of Place. Boon et al (2012) explains that there have been attempts
to measure resilience like Cutter et al (2008) use of DROP.
Ø DRR – Disaster Risk
Reduction. Mentioned by Twigg (2007) & Orencio & Fujii (2013). Endorsed
by the UN International Strategy of Disaster Reduction (UN ISDR) and UN Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA).
Notable Researchers
Community resiliency or urban resiliency or city resiliency when meshed with disaster resiliency generate a sizeable pool of researchers, from most continents and more than half a dozen fields of study; each with a different focus. Figure 1 Researcher Node Diagram (below) from Meerow et al (2016); captured who was most prolific in the field of study of Urban Resilience. Many of these researchers were encountered in the research for this paper including: Godschalk, Campanella, Pfefferbaum & Pfefferbaum, Norris, Journeay, Meerow, Twigg, Longstaff, Geis, Orencio, Fujii & Liao.
 |
| Figure 1 Researcher Node Diagram (Meerow et al 2016) |
The passing of David
R. Godschalk on the 27th of January 2018 at the age of 86 has left a
noticeable void in this field of study. He worked with many over the years
including Campanella, Brody, Burby, Deyle and Olshansky. Godschalk instructed
at the University of North Carolina and authored many articles and books over
the last four decades.
With terms defined,
concepts identified, and researchers recognized we are getting closer to being
able to answer – What is a disaster resilient community?
Contemporary patterns
of natural disasters around the world are increasing both in frequency and
intensity; combined with aging buildings and infrastructure in poorly designed
urbanscapes; and you get a distressed world (WEF, 2019). Yet, from these
challenges arise opportunities to create solutions.
Organizations & Movements
The exploration of
the literature has exposed unexpected paths to reveal that urban resiliency is
being taken seriously by the Rockefeller Foundation and their 100 Resilient
Cities project (100RC, 2019). This project has engaged in a cooperative
initiative to ensure 100 cities around the globe will be increasing their
resilience to natural disasters and remain vibrant, safe places for people to
live, work and play. Further, the quasi-public organization, the United Nations
(UN), has also engaged to foster community resiliency in UN vulnerable
communities with the aid of UN ISDR and researchers like Twigg (2007). Further,
UN initiatives have created movements of international social leaders and
researchers to effect change with Agenda 21 and Agenda 2030, designed to combat
human impact on the global environment (Simon et al, 2018).
Rules & Codes
The literature also
led to the discovery of resiliency focused building literature to ensure
structures are constructed to a high tolerance to climatic conditions and sited
at locations aware of potential environmental hazards thus avoid being built in
the wrong place to start with. ISO 31000 from the International Standards
Organization was created to establish risk management guidelines to ensure
architecture is designed and sited with a full understanding of the hazards and
risks. With this awareness, future risks will be mitigated, creating safer and
more livable communities (IRM, 2018). Additionally, in Canada, the Canadian
Geological Society has published guides that help Canadians understand the
risks in Canada and how to design resiliency into future projects (Struik et
al, 2015; Journeay et al, 2015). Finally, Ventura & Bebamzadeh (2016)
produced a seismic vulnerability report for the City of Victoria, BC; which
finds that an earthquake greater than magnitude 7 will have devastating impact
on a significant portion of the city built before 1990, with the buildings
constructed prior to 1972 suffering the greatest damage.
Godschalk & Campanella (2012) in the Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning; identify in addition to the physical urban layout; that planning requires development processes, awareness of natural hazards and natural resources; siting infrastructure, economic areas, employment areas, social areas, institutional zones, and governance. In contrast, Liao (2012), suggestion for increasing flood resiliency is to condition the occupants of the urbanscape to the wet season; ensure structures and citizens can work in harmony with the cycles of river system. Further, Liao suggests that by constructing levies or other devices to control the river; you in fact reduce the resiliency of the residents by removing the opportunity to learn how to live with the water, and when the levies break the citizens will be overwhelmed by water and emotion.
Failures
Meanwhile, Dionisio
& Pawson (2016) expound on the 2010 and 2011 Christchurch earthquakes and
the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami. Orencio & Fujii (2013) express that
in the past three decades the Philippines’ have suffered over one hundred
thousand deaths due to drought, floods and tropical storms. Astill et al (2019)
shares incidents of extreme bushfires and flash-flooding experienced in
Tasmania; while Sithole et al (2019) conveys similar issues impacting Northern
Australia and the Aboriginal communities being scorched by bushfires or
tormented by cyclones. Closer to home this writer recalls the 2011 Slave Lake
Fire, the Southern Alberta Floods of 2013 which engulfed High River and washed
through Calgary; and the 2016 Fort McMurray Fire. Confirming these events can
happen anywhere, at any time.
Success
Not all ends in death
and destruction; ingenuity, innovation and human creativity have been the
catalyst for conquering fire, water, wind and quaking earth. Humans have
learned that stone and cement do not burn under normal conditions; water can be
proofed or floated-on; and when reinforced and battened; the hatches do not
fly-away in the wind. Finally, the shaking of the earth is less severe on hard
ground than on soft. These are amongst the lessons learned the hard way and
reside in the collective human memory.
Rutte (2016) opened
the 17th IPHS Conference in July 2016 with the history of, Delft; a
small Dutch farming village and its rise to power. Around 1050 AD, Delft,
according to Rutte, constructed a series of irrigation and drained ditches
effectively controlling water in the low laying ground; transforming it into
productive farmland. These canal projects continued and by 1400 AD, Delft was a
fortified community surrounded with a moat and became the most powerful town in
the region. This is both a tale of success from an economic standpoint but also
from a disaster resiliency point-of-view. By controlling the flooding on the
coastal plain, productive agriculture enriched the community and this aided the
growth and when linked with the transportation network the community’s success
multiplied.
Mazzei
(2018) shares the surprise victory of the Sand Palace of Mexico Beach, Florida
when walloped by Hurricane Michael in October 2018. This beachfront home built
on 40’ piles buried deep while raising the living area one story above the sand
was designed to withstand 250 mile per hour winds; was the only intact home
left standing in the immediate area. Tough enough to weather the thrashing
winds and high enough to escape the storm surge; this purpose built home
survived where hundreds did not.
Methods
A search of the
literature was conducted utilizing a combination of the JIBC Library online
search engine, Google Scholar and Google search engines. Initial searches used
searched terms:
Ø Building + Community
+ “Disaster Resilience”
Ø “Disaster Resilience”
+ Architectural Design
Ø “Disaster Resilience”
Ø “Disaster Resilience”
+ Emergency Preparedness or Emergency Planning
Ø Designing Disaster
Resilient Communities
Ø “Development of
Metrics” Community Resilience
Ø Analytical
Quantification Disaster Resilience
Ø Community Disaster
Resilience “Assessment Models”
Ø Designing Disaster
Resilient Communities Theory
Ø “Disaster Resiliency
of Place”
Ø Designing Disaster +
Resilient + Communities
Ø “Resilience Alliance”
Ø Disaster Resilient
Communities
Ø Godschalk
From these searches
eventually a database of one PowerPoint and twenty-eight PDF files were
compiled; the PowerPoint (PPT) was not used. The remaining twenty-eight PDF
files consisted of seventeen journal articles; four guides
(industry/trade/field); three reports; two book chapters; one scholar
convention program and one newspaper article. An Excel spreadsheet was utilized
to organize the database for this paper. The sources include five from 2019,
four from 2018, seven from 2016, two from 2015, two from 2013, three from 2012,
and one each from 2010, 2008, 2007, 2006 & 2000. Further, a research
journal was maintained recording progress and acting as a redundant backup
copy.
Research bias – this
researcher is a solutionist; most concerned with discovering answers than being
distracted about committing academic faux pas or suffering intellectual narrow
focus. As a result, this researcher does not automatically exclude source
information purely based on its peer reviewed status; this researcher will not
prejudice information if it proves to be valuable to finding the answers. Peer
reviewed equivalent status was extended to some sources at the researcher’s
discretion.
Scope
This literature
review was limited by very tight operational time limits. A minimum of ten
peer-reviewed journal articles and a maximum of two non-peer reviewed sources
were allowed for this paper. Thus, an in-depth exploration of the literature
was not possible; however, the samples collected are representative of the
available literature, with representation from Canada, United States of
America, Europe, Australia and Asia.
Further, working
inside the previous explained constraints the scope of this literature review
has been limited to seeking disaster or resiliency events that pertain to
wildfires, floods, cyclones and/or earthquakes. Types of resiliency outside of
this scope could not be explored at this time.
Conclusions – Closer to Finding the Answers
These last sections will explore in finer
detail the results of the literature that was reviewed.
Discussions
 |
Figure 2 Mind Map - Disaster Resilient Community by McMillan (2019) |
Beyond the scope of
this literature review, economic resiliency was a re-occurring theme that was
encountered and could not be totally overlooked (Doyle, 2016). A community
needs a vibrant economy to stay healthy and by extension resilient. Thus,
economic resiliency has been included on this mind map and warrants further
research.
The remaining four
areas contribute to a healthy and resilient community; the inference that
possessing more of these components would ensure a higher level of resiliency,
would only be accurate if the citizens of the community were bonded to the
community and each other. Pfefferbaum (2013) puts this succinctly (p.251):
Community resilience is not simply a collection of
personally resilient community members who respond individually to adverse
events. Community resilience entails the ability of community members to take
deliberate, purposeful, and collective action to alleviate the detrimental
effects of adverse events.
Final Words
In this paper, the
definitions of resilient and community were explored in the literature; as well
as, the concepts & theories and prominent researchers; before organizations
& movements; rules & codes and samples of failures & success were
investigated. Then, the disaster resilient community was discussed and found to
be a complex, interconnected network of social, community, psychological,
structural and urban planning connections.
This review of the
literature did not discover any examples of physical structures that were
specifically designed to survive all four events – wildfire, flood, cyclone and
earthquake. Thus, further research is required to design a structure that can
survive these events and become the basic building block for the structural component
of a disaster resilient community.
Next, this review of
the literature did not discover any codified urbanscapes specifically designed
to layout a township or city to survive all four events – wildfire, flood,
cyclone and earthquake. Leading to a need for further research to design a
layout that has the maximum resilience to disasters.
Further, during this
literature review it was discovered that community education in disaster
preparedness is beneficial to improving the disaster resiliency of the community.
However, these education programs are most effective in communities that have
or can develop tighter bonds to both the community as a location and fellow
citizens.
Finally, more
research is required to determine how the provincial government would enable or
facilitate a disaster resilient community that can survive wildfires, floods,
cyclones and earthquakes that would be located on the West Coast of Vancouver
Island, British Columbia.
References
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Journeay, J.M., Talwar, S., Brodaric, B., & Hastings, N.L.
(2015). Disaster Resilience by Design: A Framework for Integrated
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Liao, K.H. (2012). A Theory on Urban Resilience to Floods - A Basis
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Longstaff, P.H., Armstrong, N.J., Perrin, K., Parker, W.M., &
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Zeis, J., Carbone, E.C., & Links, J. (2019). The COPEWELL Rubric: A
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Sithole, B, Campion, O.B., & Hunter-Xenie, H. (2019). Hazard-smart
remote communities in northern Australia: Community-led preparedness. Australian
Journal of Emergency Management. 34(1). 28-34. Retrieved from https://knowledge.aidr.org.au/resources/ajem-jan-2019-hazard-smart-remote-communities-in-northern-australia-community-led-preparedness/
Struik, L.C., Pearce, L.D., Dercole, F., Shoubridge, J., van Zijll
de Jong, S., Allan, J.D., Hastings, N.L., & Clague, J.J. (2015). Risk-based
Land-use Guide: Safe use of land based on hazard risk assessment (Open
File 7772). Retrieved from http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/rncan-nrcan/M183-2/M183-2-7772-1-eng.pdf
Twigg, J. (2007). Characteristics of a Disaster-resilient
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Ventura, C.E., & Bebamzadeh, A. (2016). Executive Summary -
Citywide Seismic Vulnerability Assessment of The City of Victoria.
Retrieved from https://www.victoria.ca/assets/Departments/Emergency~Preparedness/Documents/Citywide-Seismic-Vulnerabilities-Assessment.pdf
Wang, L., Xue, X, Zhang, Y., & Luo, X. (2018). Exploring the
Emerging Evolution Trends of Urban Resilience Research by Scientometric
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15(10):2181. 1-29. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102181
World Economic Forum (WEF). (2019). The Global Risk Report 2019
- 14th Edition. Retrieved from http://wef.ch/risks2019
Tables
Table 1
Resiliency/Resilient Definitions (Norris
et al 2008)
Figure 1 & Figure 2
 |
| Figure 1. Researcher Node Diagram (Meerow et al 2016) |
 |
| Figure 2: Mind Map - Disaster Resilient Community by McMillan (2019) |
I have learned a lot since this first introduction to the Literature Review in 2019. The first big ahh moment was the discovery that the only way to understand what a literature review was, was to actually do one. Then, it all made sense.
In the near future more school projects will find their way onto my blog(s).
Here is the link to my Research Poster on The GOOD Plan Blog:
https://thegoodplanblog.blogspot.com/2023/08/increasing-structural-disaster.html
As you can see, this first literature review did have an impact on future research.
Until next time...learn something new!!
Mountainman.
Next Literature Review, from 2022:
https://mtnmanblog.blogspot.com/2023/09/houses-of-straw-sticks-bricks.html
The Research Proposal (2022):
https://mtnmanblog.blogspot.com/2023/10/the-research-proposal-for-houses-of.html
Capstone Research Project
https://mtnmanblog.blogspot.com/2023/11/capstone-research-project-houses-of.html
Bridging the Gap Article
https://thegoodplanblog.blogspot.com/2023/12/bridging-gap-connecting-resilient.html
